Abstract

This research paper offers a systematic overview of tainted food and water in the U.S. as paramount issues with potentially adverse consequences on human health. With respect to food contamination, this paper focuses on the preservative carrageenan, an industrial chemical found in plastics called bisphenol A (BPA), and select pesticides, including Chlorpyrifos and Neonicotinoids. In addition, this paper analyzes several drinking water pollutants such as lead, Atrazine, and pathogens. Insights are then provided that are intended to limit the U.S. public’s exposure to the aforementioned contaminants. These recommendations include avoiding plastics with the numbers 3, 6, and 7, as well as regularly consulting the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS), among other strategies.

Contaminated Food: An Overview

Tainted food in the U.S. is a critical issue that can exact adverse effects on human health. “Today, more than 10,000 chemicals are allowed to be added to food and food contact materials in the United States, either directly or indirectly, under the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act...” (Trasande et al.). One of the main reasons why such methods are allowed to persist is related to food preservation. “We add preservatives to foods to keep them fresh. We add chemicals to foods to make them look more appealing. We have made food packaging to keep food fresh” (McCarthy). As a result of such preservation methods, there are a variety of contaminants in food for human consumption throughout the nation. These include the preservative carrageenan, an industrial chemical found in plastics called bisphenol A (BPA), and pesticides such as Chlorpyrifos and Neonicotinoids. 

Carrageenan Contamination In Food

Carrageenan is a red seaweed extract that is used as a thickening agent and preservative in many foods. It is found in multiple U.S. dairy products such as milk and ice cream. Carrageenan is also present in many dairy alternatives, including almond milk and vegan cheese. In low amounts, carrageenan does not seem to have noticeable effects on human health. Nevertheless, in greater quantities, carrageenan can be hazardous. Studies have been conducted that show how it can adversely impact digestive health and potentially lead to the formation of intestinal ulcers. “One animal study showed that exposure to carrageenan increased levels of fasting blood sugar and glucose intolerance, especially when combined with a high-fat diet. Test-tube and animal studies have found that carrageenan triggered inflammation, as well” (Bhattacharyya et al.). In turn, high blood sugar levels and glucose intolerance that result from carrageenan ingestion can lead to serious health problems if left untreated. 

Unfortunately, high blood sugar and glucose intolerance do not fully capture carrageenan’s risks to human health. “Because of the acknowledged carcinogenic properties of degraded carrageenan in animal models and the cancer-promoting effects of undegraded carrageenan in experimental models, the widespread use of carrageenan in the Western diet should be reconsidered” (Tobacman). These findings caused the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to revamp its regulations concerning this preservative. Due to the aforementioned pulmonary concerns and carcinogenic tendencies, the FDA began to “...diminish the public’s exposure to degraded carrageenan” (Tobacman).

BPA Contamination In Food

As an industrial chemical commonly used to make certain plastic storage containers in the U.S., BPA can seep into food. Exposure to BPA is a concern because of its multitude of associated negative health effects. Studies have shown the deleterious consequences of BPA “...on the brain and prostate gland of fetuses, infants and children...additional research suggests a possible link between BPA and increased blood pressure, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease” (Bauer). Unfortunately, BPA exposure can also negatively affect multiple generations simultaneously. The presence of BPA and its adverse effects can be evident in “...a pregnant female, her fetus and that fetus' future offspring, if the fetus is female” (Harrington). This suggests that BPA exposure can have concerning repercussions for human health on a wide scale over an extended period of time.

In light of these findings, the FDA has implemented a variety of measures to protect U.S. citizens from BPA consumption. For example, the FDA “...amended its regulations to no longer provide for the use of BPA-based polycarbonate resins in baby bottles and sippy cups” (U.S. Food and Drug Administration). In addition, the FDA has since amended its regulations regarding the containers in which food for children are stored. The FDA’s regulations “...no longer provide for the use of BPA-based epoxy resins as coatings in packaging for infant formula” (U.S. Food and Drug Administration). Moreover, the FDA may consider adopting measures undertaken by the European Union to ensure the safety of food contact materials with BPA. One manifestation of the EU’s efforts includes a “migration limit of 0.6 mg BPA per kg food” and prohibiting BPA in the “...manufacturing of plastic for infant feeding bottles since 1 May 2011” ​​(​​Adeyi et al.).  

Pesticide Contamination In Food

Pesticides are chemicals that are meant to prevent pests from destroying crops. They are on many foods in the U.S., even though they can be harmful for human consumption (Sissons). According to WHO, “Pesticides are potentially toxic to humans and can have both acute and chronic health effects, depending on the quantity and ways in which a person is exposed.” Chlorpyrifos and Neonicotinoids are two examples of pesticides that are most concerning for human health and safety advocates. Even after washing crops, the residue of such pesticides can still remain on food (European Food Safety Authority). Given their toxicity and pervasiveness in the U.S., these pesticides can be classified as widespread agents of grave concern to human health. In fact, pesticides “...are among the leading causes of death by self-poisoning, in particular in low- and middle-income countries” (World Health Organization). 

In addition to potentially harming consumers of foods laden with pesticides, these compounds can negatively impact U.S. farmworkers and their families. These individuals are exposed to pesticides on a first-hand basis. “When people come into contact with large quantities of pesticide, this may cause acute poisoning or long-term health effects, including cancer and adverse effects on reproduction.” (World Health Organization). These residual effects of pesticide contact are often not studied in research papers about this topic. Nevertheless, they can severely impact marginalized people who cultivate food with pesticides.

Contaminated Drinking Water: An Overview

In addition to contaminated food, contaminated drinking water poses serious hazards to human health. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), nearly 77 million Americans obtained drinking water “...from systems that violated federal protections in 2015, and more than a third of this number relied on systems that did not comply with standards put in place to protect health” (MacMillan). In turn, exposure to such contaminated water can result in a multitude of negative health effects. These issues include “...gastrointestinal illnesses, nervous system or reproductive effects, and chronic diseases such as cancer” (United States Environmental Protection Agency “Report on the Environment”). There are a variety of contaminants in drinking water that can result in such adverse consequences, including lead, Atrazine, and pathogens.

Lead Contamination In Drinking Water

Lead is a heavy metal that is used in many industrial processes, including plumbing materials (Rosner and Markowitz 38). Lead is not suitable for human consumption as it can be very harmful to the human body. Lead can leach into water through pipes and other plumbing lines (Macmillan). According to the World Health Organization’s website, “Lead is a cumulative toxicant that affects multiple body systems and is particularly harmful to young children. Lead in the body is distributed to the brain, liver, kidney and bones. It is stored in the teeth and bones, where it accumulates over time. Human exposure is usually assessed through the measurement of lead in blood.” 

The Flint water crisis is one of the most notorious incidences of lead contamination in the world. In 2014, the city of Flint, Michigan changed its water supply from the Detroit water system to the Flint River to save money. Unfortunately, the Flint River had been used as a waste disposal site for many local industries and also contained raw sewage with unsafe levels of lead (Masten 22). In turn, “The incidence of elevated blood-lead levels in children citywide had nearly doubled since 2014—and nearly tripled in certain neighborhoods.” This was especially true among children in this region. In Flint, nearly 9,000 children were supplied lead-contaminated water for 18 months (Denchak). As Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha, the founder and director of the Hurley Children’s Hospital Pediatric Public Health Initiative, noted, “Lead is one of the most damning things you can do to a child in their entire life-course trajectory” (Denchak). 

Atrazine Contamination In Drinking Water

In addition to lead, Atrazine is another widespread and harmful drinking water contaminant throughout the country. By way of background, Atrazine is a commonly used herbicide. This is because it is “...one of the most effective and inexpensive herbicides in the world and is consequently used more frequently than any other herbicide” (Graymore et al. 483). After being applied to plants and seeping into soil, Atrazine often enters water systems in the form of runoff. “This endocrine-disrupting chemical is one of the most commonly detected pesticides in U.S. waters. NRDC [Natural Resources Defense Council] studies have found its contamination is most common in drinking water across the Midwest and the southern United States” (MacMillan). 

Despite its efficacy as a herbicide, Atrazine can exact deleterious consequences on human health. National Toxicology Program researchers have indicated that Atrazine is “immunotoxic” in that it disrupts the normal functioning of the immune system (Cox 12). For example, it was shown to have decreased the production of interferon, a molecule that fights viral infection (Cox 12). Furthermore, atrazine consumption can also impede hormone system processes. “Detailed research, much of it done by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), showed that testosterone, prolactin, progesterone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and a thyroid hormone are all affected by atrazine” (Cox 12). 

Another commonly reported issue with Atrazine consumption relates to negative birth outcomes. There was a study that included 14,445 live singleton births from Ohio communities served by 22 water systems enrolled in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Atrazine Monitoring Program between 2006 and 2008. This study suggests that “...atrazine exposure is associated with reduced birth weight among term infants and that exposure to atrazine in drinking water in early and mid-pregnancy may be most critical for its toxic effects on the fetus” (Almberg et al.). The problematic fallout of Atrazine consumption has also been documented in an epidemiological study in northern Italy from 1989. This study suggests that there is an increased relative risk of ovarian neoplasia found among women exposed to Atrazine (Donna et al. 47). Despite all of these troublesome findings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has continually approved the use of Atrazine. The European Union (EU), however, has banned the use of Atrazine because of “...ubiquitous and unpreventable water contamination” (Bethsass and Colangelo). 

Pathogen Contamination In Drinking Water

Pathogens pose another threat to human health via U.S. drinking water consumption. They include “...bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause illness [and] can find their way into water supplies that are inadequately treated to kill germs” (MacMillan). Recent estimates of pathogen-contaminated drinking water reveal disturbing trends. According to a recent report documented in Scientific American, more than 200 million people—the majority of Americans—have contaminated tap water (Sneed). Unfortunately, this parallels a global trend. The World Health Organization estimates that at least two billion people worldwide use a contaminated drinking water source (MacMillan).

Unfortunately, these devastating statistics are particularly true among impoverished populations and economically disenfranchised communities throughout the country. Part of the reason for this is because source waters in such counties generally continue to serve as repositories for agricultural, industrial, and municipal waste (Ford).  In addition, the obsolete water treatment and distribution systems are not maintained appropriately (Ford). Without proper oversight for such facilities, the quality of water continues to imperil the lives of U.S. citizens who depend upon it. 

Contaminated Food & Drinking Water: Recommendations For Improvement

In light of the aforementioned contamination of food and drinking water, several potential remedies can be implemented to ameliorate their negative impacts. Avoiding plastics with the numbers 3, 6, and 7, canned goods, fast food, and processed foods are some precautions that U.S. citizens should take. This is because canned goods and plastics with the numbers 3, 6, and 7 contain BPA. Furthermore, parents who bottle-feed their newborns must ensure that the containers they use are not comprised of BPA. In addition, a potential remedy to limiting pesticide consumption entails growing produce at home as well as using non-toxic weed and insect repellent (Seaman). 

To limit drinking water contamination, U.S. citizens should regularly consult the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) search page. “States supervise the public water systems within their jurisdictions to ensure that each system meets state and EPA standards for safe drinking water” (Environmental Protection Agency “Safe Drinking Water Information System Federal Reporting Services”). On this site, users can search for the compliance history of their water system, the characteristics of the system's source(s) of water, and monitor any outstanding violations. These violations include the extent to which the water system in question has failed to follow established reporting schedules, comply with required treatment processes, and/or violated any Maximum Contaminant Levels. The SDWIS link can be found here: ofmpub.epa.gov/apex/sfdw/f?p=108:200. In addition to drawing upon the benefits of SDWIS, citizens should also proactively test their water for the contaminants such as lead, Atrazine, and pathogens. They may do so by contacting the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 800-426-4791 to find a state-certified lab in their area. Based on the results obtained from the SDWIS website and testing processes, citizens may need to install a National Sanitation Foundation-certified faucet filter or whole-house filter that removes the contaminants of concern. When combined, these efforts to limit food- and water-based contamination can have a positive effect on human health nationwide. 

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