To What Extent Did The Iraq Civil War Influence the Socio-Political Status of Iraqi Citizens?

The Socio-Political Status of Iraqi Citizens during the Civil War of 2003

History

3,492 words

Table of Contents

Introduction

Sunni and Shia Population Statistics

Saddam Hussein's Impact

Terrorism and its Impact on Iraqi Displacement

Political Party Influence

Impact on Religious Practices

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The context surrounding the civil war in Iraq begins with Saddam Hussein, a despotic ruler in middle eastern political history. Hussein ruled Iraq with an iron fist from 1979-2003, and exhibited an extreme lack of respect towards Iraqi human rights. His party, the Baath’s, were eventually Sunni dominated, endorsing the unified Islamic State through violent and unreasonable means. His presence in Middle Eastern politics changed the societal, religious, and diplomatic standards of Iraq.  

Saddam Hussein inspired the civil war in Iraq, upsetting the population through harmful political and religious ideology. From his ethnic cleansing of Iraqi Kurds to the destruction of hundreds of small villages, he ruthlessly controlled Iraq without empathy. Through a line of events from 1979 to 2003, Hussein brought structural dismantlement and intense sectarianism between Sunni and Shia Muslims. He did this by ruling Iraq with authoritarianism, favoring Sunni Muslims and fueling resentment among Shia Muslims. 

His tyranny brought tensions to a boil in 2003, when the United States initiated the “Shock and Awe” campaign to remove Saddam Hussein and his government from power (MacDiarmid, 2018). This introduced a wave of chaos and citizen displacement, officially starting the Iraq Civil War. 

Sunni and Shia Population Statistics

To begin with, Sunni and Shia Muslims have disagreed on religious doctrine for over 1,000 years. In the year 632 A.D, after the prophet Muhammad died of a fever, there was a dispute within the Muslim community. It was unclear whether the prophet Muhammad explicitly declared a successor or not. This caused a rift within Islam, creating two groups of people: Sunni Muslims believe Muhammad did not declare a successor, and Shia Muslims believed he designated his son-in-law and cousin as his direct successors. This difference slowly developed into resentment and bitterness between the Sunni and Shia for the next 1,300 years. 

Even though Islam dominates Iraq, there are many different people groups within the religion, mostly consisting of Sunni and Shia Muslims. In 2003, Shia Muslims made up about 55-60% of Iraq's population, and 35-40% were Sunni Muslims (Smock, 2003). (The other small percentage consists of Christians.) In spite of these percentages, Sunni’s have dominated Iraq through violent and excessive force onto Shia Muslims. Through a series of multiple events in the early 2000’s and late 1990’s, Sunni Muslims have asserted dictatorship in Iraq, building tensions between the two sects of Islam. 

In contrast with this, Sunni Muslims suddenly became the minority of Iraq's government in 2003, harshly contrasting the last 20-30 years of their rule. This is because of the United States invasion in Baghdad on March 20, 2003. The U.S government justified their invasion by claiming Iraq’s regime held weapons of mass destruction that concerned the United Nations Security Council (The New York Times, 2003). Bush's administration still defends the invasion today, stating their motives in 6 themes: 

Saddam Hussein's harsh treatment of Iraqi people
Saddam's possession of weapons of mass destruction
The threat Saddam posed to the Middle East
Iraq’s links to al Qaeda
Iraq’s lack of democracy
The influence a democratic Iraq would have on other authoritarian governments 
Saddam Hussein's Impact 

Although Hussein was removed from office in 2003, his absence created a power vacuum in Iraq. As many countries raced to take control of the country, the de-Baathification policy worked to remove the remaining members of Hussein's party. While this can be seen as a move towards bettering Iraq, it ended up fully disbanding the Iraqi army, leaving the country defenseless to outside forces. As well as this, many Sunni Muslims were purposefully excluded from government positions, raising tensions and increasing motives for a violent sectarian movement  within the country. 

Upon further investigation, the ethno-sectarian power dynamics that resulted from de-Baathification pushed the country closer towards a failed and corrupted state. At the surface level, Iraq’s government reformation was being supported by the US’s Coalition Provisional Authority. The CPA encouraged the  development of the IGC (Iraqi Governing Council), a system of government that quickly fell into despotism. Post de-Baathification did not completely eradicate the harmful sectarian political parties of the 90’s and early 2000’s, resulting in their re-rise to power while the US was funding government reformation in Iraq. Eighteen out of twenty five positions in the IGC were voted in by formerly exiled political parties (Dodge et al., 2021). The opportunity for despotic rulers to rise was justified by the claim that their parties represented different ethnic and religious groups that made up Iraqi society (Dodge et al., 2021) 

This formed the muhasasa, a system of government in which Sunni, Shia, and Kurdish people would supposedly have equal power throughout the country (Ibrahim, 2019). Many Iraqis reviled muhasasa. Muhasasa’s basis of ruling was standardized through sectarianism, which encouraged high-ranking ethno-sectarian rulers to become popular and drowned the country in a sect-coded civil war (Ibrahim, 2019). The development of Muhasasa deepened the sectarian divide between Sunni and Shia groups. Since Muhasasa was enabled by the U.S occupation, the politicians elected during this time did not accurately represent the Iraqi population and instead promoted the selfish agendas of their sect of Islam. The Shia politicians were funded by Iranians, enriching the political elite and those with connections to them, while impoverishing the vast majority of Iraqis. This caused extreme tension between the Sunni and Shia politicians. Because of the removal of Saddam Hussein from government, a political power shift began: the power Sunni Arabs previously had was highly diminished. The Shia took this to their advantage, using Iranian funding as a catalyst to embed their agendas into Iraqi politics. The implementation of Muhasasa impacted both Sunni and Shia citizens because of the tyrannical mindset of power-hungry leaders, degrading the quality of life for Iraqis. 

Terrorism and its Impact on Iraqi Displacement

To reflect on the tragedies both groups experienced, it's crucial to maintain an unbiased stance. Although both groups (at the extremist level) have participated in sectarian violence, humanizing their experience is necessary to move forward in the observation of their culture. Instead of politicizing Sunni and Shia muslims, edifying misinformed and hateful peoples is of the highest importance. Regardless of personal stance, these people experienced a highly traumatic and violent war, and promoting understanding is extremely important in reducing unnecessary violence against Sunni and Shia muslims.

The displacement that occurred at the beginning of the Iraqi civil war highly impacted previously marginalized communities. This includes Sunni muslims. One in twenty five Iraqis were displaced during the Iraq civil war, resulting in an astonishing 800,000 internally displaced persons (Cohen, 2002). The Iraq Dawa Party’s regime played a massive role in displacing 300,000 people, pushing out Iraqis that were not devoted to their party and agenda (Cohen, 2002).

As well as extremist groups uprooting innumerable amounts of people, economic factors also led to mass migrations of Sunni people. The breakdown of law and order in their country left many Sunni-majority areas economically devastated. The lack of basic infrastructure compelled residents to seek refuge in stable regions, further fueling the displacement crisis. Without safe and protected living spaces, Sunni muslims severely lacked the ability to participate in traditional Sunni Islamic celebrations, suppressing their culture and leaving communities ostracized. 

One of the most immediate impacts on Sunni communities was the erosion of Sunni political power. Under Saddam Hussein's rule, Sunni groups had a significant lead in political influence. His enablement of Sunni power led to the dismantling of Sunni communities in post-Hussein Iraq, highly impacting Sunni culture. Since Iraq was now experiencing a power vacuum, Shia muslims quickly gained political ascendancy, marginalizing Sunnis. This shift in power dynamics contributed to a sense of disenfranchisement among Sunni communities because of their lack of representation in government. 

The de-Baathification policies implemented after Hussein's fall played a significant role in the displacement of Sunni communities (Otternman, 2005). Since the Baathist regime was mostly Sunni-led, their exclusion from politics forced families to leave their homes in fear of persecution. The civil war also led to a highly increased amount of sectarian violence, with Sunni communities often receiving the worst treatment from Shia militias and government forces. This environment grew tensions and led to deep insecurities between cities and neighborhoods. Families, towns, and other groups of Sunni muslims were torn apart as sectarian violence became increasingly polarized. Many people were uprooted as a result, disrupting established communities. 

Not only did the exclusion of Sunni muslims in politics uproot thousands, the rise of extremist groups further exacerbated the displacement of Sunni communities. Groups like Al-Qaeda exploited the chaos of the power vacuum to establish control on the vulnerable Sunni-dominated regions. These extremist groups used violent tactics to employ their ideologies, including bombings, beheadings, and other atrocities. Residents of these regions faced violent circumstances that forced them to abandon their homes. 

The creation of these extremist groups highly distorted Sunni public image. These groups claimed to act in the name of Sunni Islam, but their interpretation of the Quran and other Islamic principles were widely rejected by Sunni scholars and communities. The terminology that government officials widely used to describe Sunni extremist groups created harmful generalization of Sunni muslims, increasing cruelty against Sunnis internationally (TDT: RECOMMENDATIONS FROM AMERICAN MUSLIMS, 2008). 

The rise of extremist groups during the Iraq civil war also led to internal divisions within Sunni communities. Although many Sunnis directly opposed the extremist groups, some were forced to join or face a violent death. The imposition of strict Sunni Islam interpretations raised tensions between groups, demolishing the once close-knit communities.

Political Party Influence 

The rise of Sunni extremist groups during the beginning of the Iraq Civil War had a detrimental effect on Sunni culture. These groups distorted an accurate perception of Sunni Islam, ripped families apart, and contributed to the economic and morale decline of Sunni communities. 

The ravaging of Sunni culture during the beginning of the Iraqi civil war is obvious. Not only have extremist groups honed in on Sunni Muslims, but so has Iraq culture overall. Members of Sunni societies have testified themselves, reminding the world of the generalized and targeted violence Sunni groups have endured since 2003: “Our community has been attacked constantly and we are not afforded protection[...] Our families are now scattered between different countries. We are looked at through our faith, not as Iraqi citizens.” (Kathem et al., 2022). It’s important to recognize the impact of the Iraq Civil War on multiple people groups. Since Shia Muslims constituted (and continue to) the majority of the Iraqi population in 2003, their rise to power was swift. The removal of Sunni dominated regime allowed the Shia majority to assert their political power and represent their communities. Shia leaders organized highly influential parties that shaped Iraqi politics. 

There are about three highly influential parties that participated in Iraqi politics in 2003. These groups include the Islamic Dawa Party (IDP), the Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI) and the Badr Organization.

The IDP is not a completely unified party and includes several factions with differing viewpoints. Overall, the IDPs supposed purpose was to counterbalance the modernist ideas of the West with traditional Islamic beliefs. Their influence in Iraqi politics has decreased significantly since 2018, but their impact is noteworthy. This party has undergone various transformations. Their main goals included the implementation of Sharia law, fighting for social justice, opposing dictatorship, empowering the Shia majority, and expressing commitment to national unity. During the most tumultuous period of the war, three out of the five prime ministers of Iraq were members of the IDP: Ibrahim al-Jaafari, Nouri al-Maliki, and Haider al-Abadi (Fantappie, 2023). They highly influenced the socio-political status of Iraqi citizens by shaping Iraq's political landscape (Hasan, 2019). Although they are considered highly conservative, their work has garnered some level of support from Iraqi citizens because of their work in social services. 

SCIRI is/was a highly influential group in Iraq post-Hussein. SCIRI participated in the rebuilding of Iraq's political system, returning from exile after the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. Their goals were similar to the Islamic Dawa Party, including supporting the establishment of the Islamic State through Sharia law. SCIRI and the IDP worked closely together during the 2003 Iraq civil war. They advocated for the role of Shia populations in the Iraqi government, directly opposing Saddam Hussein's previous regime. Their close ties to Iranian rulers caused their politics to be biased. SCIRI participated in the democratic transformation of Iraq. SCIRI was highly controversial because of their relations with Iran, diminishing trust with Iraqi citizens. 

The Badr Organization was formed by Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. This organization was formed as the armed wing of SCIRI, being one of the largest and most powerful political influences in Iraq. The Badr Organization upholds extremely close ties to the Iranian government. They represent the Iranian-based Shia islamic party. They strongly disliked the Baathist movement and fought to take down Saddam Hussein's regime. 

Some of these political parties have encouraged the rise of sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia muslims because of their ultra-religious ideologies that they base their political agendas on. For example, the IDP and SCIRI purged most Sunni officials from the government, as well as supporting militias that engaged in sectarian violence against Sunni’s (Fantappie, 2023). The impact that these parties had on the Shia uprising was astonishing. Of course, it's important to note that Shia communities were highly oppressed under Hussein's rule, leading to their subsequent zeal for revolt. 

These political parties had a large impact on Shia culture. The rise of Shia political parties at the beginning of the Iraq civil war provided a platform for the Shia community to represent themselves in the political arena. As well as this, Shia political parties advocated for the embodiment of Sharia law in Iraqi society. These parties engaged in providing social services and welfare programs for Shia communities, enabling them to progress as a society.

Although their Islamic empowerment agendas were highly popular, they had intense effects on Shia communities. The involvement of Shia political parties in the beginning of the Iraq Civil War in 2003 heightened tensions between Sunni and Shia groups. As mentioned before, the rise of extremist groups and powerful militia are a direct result of Shia political empowerment. Shia communities were directly impacted by the promotion of their own beliefs through political agendas, leaving harmful scars within Shia society. The rise of these militia meant the active engagement in constant violence, preventing normalcy for Iraqi citizens. Shia militias were involved in sectarian violence against Sunni communities, contributing to the cycle of Sunni uprisings and encouraging Sunni extremist groups. In addition, the overwhelming rule of Shia groups in a previously Sunni dominated political environment led to the militarization of politics in Iraq. This means that armed groups wielded considerable influence beyond the scope of traditional state institutions. Furthermore, Shia dominance was enabled through Iran's elites, making Iraq's political environment highly controversial (Travers et al., 2016)

Impact on Religious Practices 

It's also important to recognize the changes in religious practices and rituals in Shia communities as a direct result of the beginning of the Iraq civil war. For context, Shia Islam places great importance on religious pilgrimages. These pilgrimages include visiting holy sites, prayer rituals, and fasting. Because of the highly unstable state of Iraq in 2003, pilgrimaging became a highly unlikely event for most Shiites. The civil war created a volatile and dangerous environment in Iraq, meaning that prospective pilgrims would face violence, terrorism, and sectarian attacks. The risks of travel were too high for many families, highly impacting the ability of individuals to make regular pilgrimage to holy sites. In fact, Shia holy sites actually became a target for Sunni attacks. In 2006, the al-Askari shrine was bombed as a direct result of sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia muslims.

According to the United States Institute of Peace, the tensions between Shia and Sunni muslims were exploited by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Jordanian jihadi who led al-Qaeda in Iraq (Wright et al., 2017). His actions led to kidnappings, beheadings, and bombings. In particular, his goal was to remove America from Iraq in 2003-2006, when he died in a bombing. His actions launched even harsher attacks on Shia muslims, further limiting their ability to practice Shia Islam. His leadership in al-Qaeda exacerbated sectarian tensions and impacted the capability for Shia muslims to participate in religious pilgrimages. 

The sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia muslims also highly impacted religious leadership in Shia Islam.  Some Shia imams (islamic leaders) became politically active during and after the Iraq War. They engaged in politics to address the concerns and aspirations of their communities, aligning with or leading political movements that sought to represent Shia interests in the post-Saddam political landscape.

The overwhelming rise of Shia Muslim power in the post-Hussein political landscape of Iraq led to intensely complex international relations for the country. Like mentioned before, the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime created a power vacuum in Iraq. Constant foreign intervention created an even more intense uprising in sectarian violence. The absence of people's control within their own nation prompts them to affiliate with extremist groups as a means of reestablishing their influence. Centrism soon later became Iraq's only opportunity for peace, a political ideology that is still struggling to be implemented today. Extremist groups became a focal point for many Iraqi citizens, a “way out” of being constantly persecuted by the instability of the Iraq government and foreign forces. 

The influence of religion within Iraqi society is intense. Islam has been integrated into  government, culture, and even education in Iraq. The Middle East has cultivated millions of Muslim believers for hundreds of years, a feat that many other religions failed to accomplish. The beautiful image of Islamic faith has been ruined through endless years of war and destruction, something the Iraq Civil War exacerbated. Iraqi citizens that were born during the Iraqi civil war into a state of chaos, raised in ultra-religious environments, and expected to accept foreign occupation. 

Although the Sunni and Shia sectarian violence has been addressed thoroughly already, it's important to recognize their unfailing faith. Nearly the entire population of Iraqi citizens recognize and participate in one form of Islam or the other. The beauty of their unfailing faith is one that unsympathetic surrounding countries may’ve used well. Both Sunni and Shia Islam have extremist members, but the resounding majority had no option except joining violent groups to protect themselves and their families. The people of Iraq sought peace between Shia and Muslim groups, but mainstream media only covered the violent and extremist group actions that Islamic people didn't want to be part of. Islamic terrorist groups took the opportunity to abuse their power by recruiting jihadists to represent their extremism by dying for the sake of the Islamic State (Exploiting Disorder: al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, 2016).

The lack of justice the people of Iraq received does not justify radical extremist behavior, but it may explain the following timeline of increased violence against foreign control. From 1991 to 2001, tensions within the Saddam-Hussein led government renewed sectarian violences between Sunni and Shia groups. Al Qaeda then began to capitalize on the sectarian divide and used it as a catalyst to initiate insurgent activities against Shia groups as they sense a decline in Sunni political influence in Iraq. Al Qaeda's influence increased after this, intensifying tensions even more. The United States began hypothesizing that Iraq was concealing weapons of mass destruction after 9/11, leading to their invasion in 2003. This begins the Iraq Civil War. When the U.S invades, Saddam Hussein gets removed from government and executed, forming a power vacuum within Iraq. Al Qaeda officially emerges as a major power in post-U.S invaded Iraq, engaging in suicide bombings, kidnappings, and attacks on Shia muslims. The hostile environment during this time allowed other militia to rise unnoticed. The Mandhi Army emerged as a powerful Shia force during this time. They are involved in many conflicts with U.S forces as well as insurgencies against Sunni communities.

While tensions and violence rose in Iraq, Islamic extremists began attacking leaders and holy sites; for example- the assassination of Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim, a powerful Shia leader for SCIRI. Another example includes the terrorist attacks on Shia worshippers observing the Ashura holiday in Baghdad and Karbala in 2004 (Hamasaeed et al., 2020).

The previous elaboration of events outlines a small part of Iraqi history, explaining some of the most violent and oppressive experiences of the current century. The rulers of Iraq struggle to accept new customs under extremist regimes, leaving the population lacking basic human rights. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Iraq civil war left an indelible mark on the socio-political status of Iraqi citizens. From widespread displacement and sectarian tensions to a fragile political landscape and geopolitical complexities, the repercussions of the conflict continue to challenge the nation's progress. The journey toward rebuilding and fostering unity is a long and difficult one, needing sustained efforts both domestically and internationally to address the multiple challenges brought by this intense and destructive time in Iraq's history. Bibliography 

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